demonstrated that EC pretreatment blocked high glucose- and LPS-induced upregulation of ICAM-1 and suppressed VCAM-1 expression in NRK-52E cells, contributing to its renoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects ( 4 Role of microbial metabolism of EC in its anti-inflammatory effects As described in previous sections, the bioavailability of EC is relatively low, with nearly half remaining unabsorbed in the small intestine and undergoing microbial metabolism in the colon to generate a series of low-molecular-weight metabolites (LMWMs) (Table 2 summaries the microbial metabolites of EC that have demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects, along with their precursors, experimental models, and underlying mechanisms
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